VENETO

Between the 2nd and 1st millennia B.C., the region was inhabited by the Euganei. According to ancient historians, the Veneti (sometimes called the PaleovenetI), came from Paphlagonia in Asia Minor at the time of the Fall of Troy, led by prince Antenor, a comrade of Aeneas. In the 7th-6th centuries B.C. the local populations of Veneto entered into contact with the Etruscans and the Greeks. Venetic culture reached a highpoint during the 4th century B.C. These ancient Veneti spoke Venetic, an Indo-European language akin to, but distinct from Latin and the other Italic languages. Meanwhile, the Veneti prospered through their trade in amber and were well-known for their breeding of horses. Este, Padua, Oderzo, Adria, Vicenza, Verona, and Altino became centers of Venetic culture. However, over time, the Veneti began to adopt the dress and certain other customs of their Celtic neighbors. During the third century B.C., the Veneti, together with the Cenomani Celts on their western border, sided with the Romans as Rome expanded and struggled against the Insubri and Boii Celts. During the Second Punic War (218 B.C. – 202 B.C.), the Veneti even sent a contingent of soldiers to fight alongside the Romans against Hannibal and the invading Carthaginians and Veneti were among those slaughtered at the Battle of Cannae (216 B.C.). In 181 B.C., a Roman triumvirate of Publius Scipio Nasica, Caius Flaminius, and Lucius Manlius Acidinus led three thousand families, mainly from Samnium but supplemented by native Veneti, to found a Latin colony at Aquileia as a base to protect the territory of the Veneti from incursions of the hostile Carni and Istri. From then on, Roman influence over the area increased. Thus, in 169 B.C. more colonizing families were sent from Rome to Aquileia. In 148 B.C. the Via Postumia was completed connecting Aquileia to Genua. In 131 B.C., the Via Annia joined Adria to Patavium to Altinum to Concordia to Aquileia. Gradually, the Roman Republic transformed its alliance with the Veneti into a relationship of dominance. After the 91 B.C. Italic rebellion, the cities of the Veneti, together with the rest of Transpadania, were granted partial rights of Roman citizenship according to the Lex Pompeia Transpadanis. Later in 49 B.C., by the Lex Rubria de Gallia Rome granted full Roman citizenship to the Veneti. Such citizens would have benefitted from the Via Claudia completed in 46 B.C. and connecting Altinum to Tarvisium to Feltria to Tridentum (modern Trento). After the Battle of Philippi (42 B.C.), which ended the Roman Civil War, the lands of the Veneti, together with the rest of Cisalpine Gaul, ceased to be a province and the territory of the Veneti, which included modern Friuli, became region X (Venetia et Istria) of a new entity named Italia (Italy). Aquileia became its capital. Meanwhile, under the Pax Romana, Patavium (modern Padua) became one of the most important cities of northern Italy. Other Venetic cities such as Opitergium (modern Oderzo), Tarvisium (modern Treviso), Feltria (modern Feltre), Vicetia (modern Vicenza), Ateste (modern Este), and Altinum (modern Altino) prospered and Romanized adopting the Latin language and Roman culture. Thus, by the end of the first century A.D., Latin had finally displaced the Venetic language. Already in 166 A.D., the Quadi and Marcomanni had briefly invaded Venetia. In the fifth century, both Alaric the Goth and then Attila and the Huns devastated the area. Attila laid siege to Aquileia and turned it into a ruin in 452 A.D. Many of the mainland inhabitants sought protection in the nearby lagoons which would become Grado in the east and Venice more to the west. On the heels of the Huns came the Ostrogoths who not only invaded, but settled the land. During the mid-sixth century, Justinian reconquered Venetia for the Eastern Roman Empire. An Exarch was established at Ravenna while a military tribune was set up in Oderzo. Byzantine rule would not last long. Starting in 568 A.D, the Lombards crossed the Julian Alps. These invaders subdivided the territory of Venetia into numerous feuds ruled by Germanic dukes and counts (essentially creating the division of Veneto from Friuli). The invasion provoked another wave of migration from the mainland to the Byzantine controlled coast and islands. In 667, A.D. the Lombards conquered the Byzantine base at Oderzo and took possession of practically all of Veneto (and Friuli) except for Venice and Grado. The 36 Lombard duchies included Ceneda, Treviso, Verona, and Vicenza, and within the Veneto itself, a reminder of Lombard hegemony is seen today in palace names which begin with the word "Farra." By the middle of the eight century, the Franks had assumed political control and mainland Veneto became part of the Carolingian Empire. Though politically dominant these Germanic invaders were gradually absorbed into the Venetian population over the centuries. In the late ninth century, Berengar, Margrave of the March of Friuli was elected king of Italy. Under his turmultuous reign, the March of Friuli was absordbed into the March of Verona so that Verona's territory contained a large portion of Roman Venetia. In the tenth century mainland Veneto, after suffering invasions from nearby Magyars and Slavs, was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire. Gradually, the communes of the mainland grew in power and wealth. In 1167 an alliance (called the Lombard League) was formed among the Venetian cities such as Venice, Padua, Treviso, Vicenza, and Verona with other cities of Northern Italy to assert their rights against the Holy Roman Emperor. The Second Treaty of Constance in 1183 confirmed the Peace of Venice of 1177 in which the cities agreed to remain part of the Empire as long as their jurisdiction over their own territories was not infringed upon. The league dissolved at the death of Emperor Frederick II in 1250. The period also witnessed the founding of the second oldest university in Italy, the University of Padua founded in 1222. Around this time, Padua also served as home to St. Anthony, the beloved saint called simply "il santo" ("the saint") by the inhabitants of the town. As the barbarians were interested in the wealth of the mainland, part of the Venetian population sought refuge on some of the isolated and unoccupied islands of lagoon, from which the city of Venetiae or Venice was born. After a period of Byzantine domination in 8th century, Venice became an independent maritime Republic ruled by its elected dux or doge. The Republic proved to be a commercial superpower, and its influence lasted through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. In fact, the Venetian Republic enjoyed 1100 years of uninterrupted influence throughout the Mediterranean. By the 16th century, Venetian Republic held dominion over Veneto, Friuli, part of Lombardy and Romagna, Istria, Dalmatia, the Ionian Islands of Corfu, Cefalonia, Ithaca and Zante. From the 13th to 17th centuries it held the island of Crete and from the mid-15th to mid-16th century, the island of Cyprus. Venetian mainland holdings led to Venetian involvement in European and in particular, Italian politics. Cities had to be fortified, one impressive example being Palmanova in Friuli. However, the wise rule and propserity brought by the Serenissima made the cities of the terra firma willing subjects. Eastern Islands served as useful ports for Venetian shipping. However, as the Ottoman Empire grew more powerful and aggressive, Venice was often put on the defensive. Ottoman control of the eastern Mediterranean and the discoveries of sea routes to Asia around Africa and of the Americas had a debilitating effect on the Venetian economy. In 1797, Napoleon invaded the territory of the Venetian Republic. Overwhelmed by more powerful forces, Doge Ludovico Manin resigned and retired to his villa at Passariano in Friuli and the thousand year old Republic disappeared as an independent state. This proved very unpopular in the mainland cities where sympathies were strongly with the Republic of Venice. In many places peasants actively attempted to resist the French invaders who arrogantly claimed to bring them liberty. By the Treaty of Campoformio signed on October 17, 1797 part of the mainland Venetian territory was handed over to the Austrian Empire and a western part was annexed to the Cisalpine Republic. The territory soon reverted back to Napoleon in 1801, but after his defeat it was handed over to Austria again. The Veneto remained in Austrian hands, except certain cities briefly in 1848, until annexed by the Kingdom of Italy. In 1866 after the Third War of Independence the Veneto was annexed to Italy. After a controversial referendum, it was occupied by Italian troops, the Carabinieri. In an effort to Italianize the population, the dialects of Venetian were forbidden while often people's surnames and place names were changed. Because of the conditions brought about by the new Italian government, the 19th century became a period of massive emigration. With sorrow Hundreds of thousands Venetians made the difficult decision to abandon their native land and homes and seek more congenial circumstances in South America Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Central America locations such as Chipilo, Mexico and also the Caribbean Islands; Cuba, The Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and to other distant parts of the world such as Australia, Canada, and also the United States of America. In many of these places their descendants have maintained the use of their respective ancestral Venetian dialect. After Italy entered the First World War, the Veneto became a major front. The flooding of the Piave River would play a major role in the Italian victory at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto which was fought between October 24 and November 3, 1918 and serve as the major turning point in the War. After the Second World War, the Venetian spirit of sacrifice and a family orientation played a major role in an economic recovery that harmoniously blended traditional agriculture, trade, and industry.

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UMBRIA

The region is named for the Umbri tribe, who settled in the region in protohistoric times (6th century BC): 672 BC is the legendary date of foundation of the town of Terni (Interamna). Their language was Umbrian, a relative of Latin and Oscan. Archaeological evidence shows that the Umbri can be identified with the creators of the Terramara, and probably also of the Villanova culture in northern and central Italy, who at the beginning of the Bronze Age displaced the original Ligurian population by an invasion from the north-east. It may be provisionally inferred that the Umbrians were closely related to the Achaeans of prehistoric Greece. Pliny the Elder's statement that they were the most ancient race of Italy is certainly wrong.
The Etruscans were chief enemies of the Umbri, and the Etruscan invasion went from the western seaboard towards the north and east (lasting from about 700 to 500 BC), eventually driving the Umbrians towards the Apenninic uplands and capturing 300 Umbrian towns. Nevertheless, the Umbrian population does not seem to have been eradicated in the conquered districts. After the downfall of the Etruscans, Umbrians attempted to aid the Samnites in their struggle against Rome (308 BC); but communications with Samnium were impeded by the Roman fortress of Narni (founded 298 BC). At the great battle of Sentinum (295 BC), which was fought in their own territory, the Umbrians did not substantially help the Samnites. The Roman victory at Sentinum started a period of integration under the Roman rulers, who established some colonies (e.g., Spoletium) and built the via Flaminia (220 BC), which became a principal vector for Roman development in Umbria. During Hannibal's invasion in the second Punic war, the battle of Lake Trasimene was fought in Umbria, but the Umbrians did not aid him. During the Roman civil war between Mark Antony and Octavian (40 BC), the city of Perugia supported Antony and was almost completely destroyed by the latter. In Pliny’s time, 49 independent communities still existed in Umbria, and the abundance of inscriptions and the high proportion of recruits in the imperial army attest to its population. The modern region of Umbria, however, is essentially different from the Umbria of Roman times (see Roman Umbria), which extended through most of what is now the northern Marche, to Ravenna, but excluded the west bank of the Tiber. Thus Perugia was in Etruria, and the area around Norcia was in the Sabine territory. After the collapse of the Roman empire, Ostrogoths and Byzantines struggled for the supremacy in the region; the Lombards founded the duchy of Spoleto, covering much of today's Umbria, and ruled from 571 to the 13th century. When Charlemagne conquered most of the Lombard kingdoms, some Umbrian territories were given to the Pope, who established temporal power over them. Some cities acquired a form of autonomy (the comuni); they were often at war with each other in the context of the more general conflict between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire or between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines.
In the 14th century, the signorie arose, but were subsumed into the Papal States, which ruled the region until the end of the 18th century. After the French Revolution and the French conquest of Italy, Umbria was part of the ephemeral Roman Republic (1789-1799) and of the Napoleonic Empire (1809-1814). After Napoleon's defeat, the Pope regained Umbria until 1860. After the Risorgimento and the Piedmontese expansion, Umbria was incorporated in the Kingdom of Italy. The borders of Umbria were fixed in 1927, with the creation of the province of Terni and the separation of the province of Rieti, which was incorporated in Lazio.

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TUSCANY

The pre-Etruscan history of the area in the late Bronze and Iron ages parallels that of the early Greeks. The Tuscan area was inhabited by peoples of the so-called Apennine culture in the late second millennium BC (roughly 1350–1150 BC) who had trading relationships with the Minoan and Mycenaean civilisations in the Aegean Sea. Following this the Villanovan culture (1100–700 BC) came about which saw Tuscany, and the rest of Etruria, taken over by chiefdoms (as was also the case at this time in France and the Aegean after the collapse of Mycenae and Troy). City-states developed in the late Villanovan (again paralleling Greece and the Aegean) before "Orientalization" occurred and the Etruscan civilisation rose. The Etruscans were the first major civilization in this region of Italy; large enough to lay down a transport infrastructure, implement agriculture and mining, and produce vivid art. The people who formed the civilisation lived in the area (called Etruria) well into prehistory. The civilisation grew to fill the area between the rivers Arno and Tiber from the eighth century BC, reaching their peak during the seventh and sixth centuries BC, and finally ceded all power and territory to the Romans by the first century BC. Throughout their existence, they lost territory to the surrounding civilisations of Magna Graecia, Carthage and Gaul. Despite being described as distinct in its manners and customs by contemporary Greeks, the cultures of Greece, and later Rome, influenced the civilisation to a great extent and this increasing lack of cultural distinction, including the adoption of the Etruscan upper class by the Romans, was one of the reasons for its eventual demise. Soon after absorbing Etruria, Rome established the cities of Lucca, Pisa, Siena, and Florence, endowed the area with new technologies and development, and ensured peace. These developments included extensions of the existing transport infrastructure, introduction of aqueducts and sewers, and the construction of many buildings, both public and private. The Roman civilization in the West finally collapsed in the fifth century AD and the region was left by the Goths, and others, without control. In the sixth century, the Longobards arrived and designated Lucca the capital of their Duchy of Tuscia. With pilgrims travelling along the Via Francigena between Rome and France came wealth and development during the mediæval period. The food and shelter needed by these travellers fuelled the growth of new communities around churches and taverns. The conflict between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, factions supporting, respectively, the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire in central and northern Italy during the 12th and 13th centuries, split the Tuscan people. These two factors gave rise to several powerful and rich communes in Tuscany: Arezzo, Florence, Lucca, Pisa, and Siena. The balance between these communes were ensured by the assets they held; Pisa, a port; Siena, banking; and Lucca, banking and silk. By the renaissance, however, Florence succeeded in becoming the cultural capital of Tuscany and ensured a bright, and peaceful, future for the region. Tuscany is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance movement, and its artistic heritage includes architecture, painting and sculpture, collected in dozens of museums in towns and cities across the region. Perhaps the best-known are the Uffizi and the Bargello in Florence. Tuscany was the birthplace of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Dante Alighieri ("the father of the Italian language"). In the 1400s, the rulers of Florence, the Medicis, annexed surrounding lands to create modern-day Tuscany. The War of Polish Succession in the 1730s, however, ended in the transfer of Tuscany from the Medicis to Francis, the Hapsburg Duke of Lorraine, who would become Holy Roman Emperor. With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire by Napoleon, Tuscany was inherited by the successor to the Holy Roman Empire, namely, the Austrian Empire. With the Italian Wars of Independence in the 1850s, Tuscany was transferred from Austria to the newly unified nation of Italy.

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SUDTIROL

The region of current Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol was conquered by the Romans in 15 BC. After the end of the Western Empire, it was divided between the Lombards (from the south up to Salorno), Alamanni (Vinschgau-Val Venosta) and Bavarians (from Bolzano to Brenner). After the creation of the Kingdom of Italy under Charlemagne, the frontier mark of Trento included the counties of Bolzano and Venosta, while the Duchy of Bavaria received the remained part. From the 11th century onwards, part of the region was governed by the prince-bishops of Trento and Brixen, to whom the Holy Roman Emperors had given extensive temporal powers over their bishoprics. The rest was part of the County of Tyrol: in 1363 its last titular, Marguerite of Gorizia (von Görz) ceded it to the House of Habsburg. The region was largely Germanized in the early Renaissance (14th century), and important German poets like Oswald von Wolkenstein were originally of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol. The two Bishoprics were secularized by the Treaty of Luneville of 1803 and given to the Habsburgs. Two years later, following the Austrian defeat at Austerlitz, the region was given to Napoleon's ally Bavaria (Treaty of Pressburg, 1805). The new rulers provoked a peasant rebellion, led by local hero Andreas Hofer, in 1809 which was soon crushed; the Treaty of Paris of February 1810 split the area between Austria and the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. After Napoleon's defeat, in 1815, the region returned to Austria. During French control of the region, it was called officially Haut Adige (literally "High Adige", Italian: "Alto Adige"; German: "Hoch Etsch") in order to avoid any reference to the historical Austrian Tyrol province. During the First World War, major battles were fought high in the Alps and Dolomites between Austrian and Italian forces, for whom control of the region was a key strategic objective. The collapse of the Austrian war effort enabled Italian troops to occupy the region in 1918 and its annexation was confirmed in the post-war treaties, which awarded the region to Italy under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain. Under the rule of Benito Mussolini, the Fascist dictator of Italy (ruled 1922-1943), Alto Adige/Südtirol was subjected to an intensive programme of Italianization: all references to old Tyrol were banned and the region was referred to as "Venezia Tridentina," in an attempt to justify the Italian claims to the area by historically linking the region to one of the Roman Regions of Italy (Regio X Venetia et Histria). Hitler and Mussolini agreed in 1938 that the German-speaking population would be transferred to German-ruled territory or dispersed around Italy, but the outbreak of the Second World War prevented them from fully carrying out the relocation. Nevertheless thousands of people were relocated to the Third Reich and only with great difficulties managed to return to their ancestral land after the end of the war. In 1943, when the Italian government signed an armistice with the Allies, the region was occupied by Germany, which reorganised it as the Operation Zone of the Alpine Foothills and put it under the administration of Gauleiter Franz Hofer. The region was de facto annexed to the German Reich (with the addition of the province of Belluno) until the end of the war. This status ended along with the Nazi regime and Italian rule was restored in 1945. Italy and Austria negotiated an agreement in 1946, put into effect in 1947 when a new Italian constitution was promulgated, that the region would be granted considerable autonomy. German and Italian were both made official languages, and German-language education was permitted once more. However, the implementation of the agreement was not seen as satisfactory by either the German-speaking population or the Austrian government. The issue became the cause of significant friction between the two countries and was taken up by the United Nations in 1960. A fresh round of negotiations took place in 1961 but proved unsuccessful, partly because of a campaign of terrorism by German-speaking separatists. The issue was only resolved in 1971 when a new Austro-Italian treaty was signed and ratified. It stipulated that disputes in the province of Bolzano would be submitted for settlement to the International Court of Justice in The Hague, that the province would receive greater autonomy from Italy, and that Austria would not interfere in Bolzano's internal affairs. The new agreement proved broadly satisfactory to the parties involved and the separatist tensions soon eased. Matters were helped further by Austria's accession to the European Union in 1995, which has helped to improve cross-border cooperation.

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SICILY

The original inhabitants of Sicily were three defined groups of the Ancient peoples of Italy. The most prominent and by far the earliest of which was the Sicani, who according to Thucydides arrived from the Iberian Peninsula (perhaps Catalonia). Important historical evidence has been discovered in the form of cave drawings by the Sicani, dated from the end of the Pleistocene Epoch, around 8000 BC. The Elymians, thought to be from the Aegean, were the next tribe to migrate to join the Sicanians on Sicily. Although there is no evidence of any wars between the tribes, when the Elymians settled in the north-west corner of the island, the Sicanians moved across eastwards. From mainland Italy, thought to originally have been Ligures from Liguria came the Sicels in 1200 BC; forcing the Sicanians to move back across Sicily settling in the middle of the island. In around 750 BC, the Greeks began to colonize Sicily, establishing many important settlements. The most important colony was Syracuse; other significant ones were Akragas, Gela, Himera, Selinunte, and Zancle. The native Sicani and Sicel peoples were absorbed by the Hellenic culture with relative ease, and the area was part of Magna Graecia along with the rest of Southern Italy, which the Greeks had also colonized. Sicily was very fertile, and the introduction of olives and grape vines flourished, creating a great deal of profitable trading; a significant part of Greek culture on the island was that of Greek religion and many temples were built across Sicily, such as the Valley of the Temples at Agrigento. Politics on the island was intertwined with that of Greece; Syracuse became desired by the Athenians, who during Peloponnesian War set out on the Sicilian Expedition. Syracuse gained Sparta and Corinth as allies, as a result the Athenian army and ships were destroyed, with most of the survivors being sold into slavery. While Greek Syracuse controlled much of Sicily, there were a few Carthaginian colonies in the far west of the island. When the two cultures began to clash, the Sicilian Wars erupted. Greece began to make peace with the Roman Republic in 262 BC and the Romans sought to annex Sicily as its empire's first province. Rome intervened in the First Punic War, crushing Carthage so that by 242 BC Sicily had become the first Roman province outside of the Italian Peninsula. The Second Punic War, in which Archimedes was killed, saw Carthage trying to take Sicily from the Roman Empire. They failed and this time Rome was even more unrelenting in the annihilation of the invaders; during 210 BC the Roman consul M. Valerian, told the Roman Senate that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily". Sicily served a level of high importance for the Romans as it acted as the empire's granary, it was divided into two quaestorships in the form of Syracuse to the east and Lilybaeum to the west. Although under Augustus some attempt was made to introduce the Latin language to the island, Sicily was allowed to remain largely Greek in a cultural sense, rather than a complete cultural Romanisation. When Verres became governor of Sicily, the once prosperous and contented people were put into sharp decline, in 70 BC noted figure Cicero condemned the misgovernment of Verres in his oration In Verrem. The religion of Christianity first appeared in Sicily during the years following 200 AD, between this time and 313 AD when Constantine the Great finally lifted the prohibition, a significant number of Sicilians became martyrs such as Agatha, Christina, Lucy, Euplius and many more. Christianity grew rapidly in Sicily during the next two centuries, the period of history where Sicily was a Roman province lasted for around 700 years in total. As the Roman Empire was falling apart, a Germanic tribe known as the Vandals took Sicily in 440 AD under the rule of their king Geiseric. The Vandals had already invaded parts of Roman France and Spain, inserting themselves as an important power in western Europe. However, they soon lost these newly acquired possessions to another East Germanic tribe in the form of the Goths. The Ostrogothic conquest of Sicily (and Italy as a whole) under Theodoric the Great began in 488; although the Goths were Germanic, Theodoric sought to revive Roman culture and government and allowed freedom of religion. The Gothic War took place between the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. Sicily was the first part of Italy to be taken under general Belisarius who was commissioned by Eastern Emperor Justinian I. Sicily was used as a base for the Byzantines to conquer the rest of Italy, with Naples, Rome, Milan and the Ostrogoth capital Ravenna falling within five years. However, a new Ostrogoth king Totila, drove down the Italian peninsula, plundering and conquering Sicily in 550. Totila, in turn, was defeated and killed in the Battle of Taginae by the Byzantine general Narses in 552. Byzantine Emperor Constans II decided to move from the capital Constantinople to Syracuse in Sicily during 660, the following year he launched an assault from Sicily against the Lombard Duchy of Benevento, which then occupied most of Southern Italy. The rumours that the capital of the empire was to be moved to Syracuse, along with small raids probably cost Constans his life as he was assassinated in 668. His son Constantine IV succeeded him, a brief usurpation in Sicily by Mezezius being quickly suppressed by the new emperor. Contemporary accounts report that the Greek language was widely spoken on the island during this period. In 826, Euphemius the commander of the Byzantine fleet of Sicily forced a nun to marry him. Emperor Michael II caught wind of the matter and ordered that general Constantine end the marriage and cut off Euphemius' nose. Euphemius rose up, killed Constantine and then occupied Syracuse; he in turn was defeated and drove out to North Africa. He offered rule of Sicily over to Ziyadat Allah the Aghlabid Emir of Tunisia in return for a place as a general and safety; an Islamic army of Arabs, Berbers, Spaniards, Cretans and Persians was sent. The conquest was a see-saw affair: with considerable resistance and many internal struggles, it took over a century for Byzantine Sicily to be conquered. Syracuse held for a long time, Taormina fell in 902, and all of the island was eventually conquered by 965. Throughout this reign, continued revolts by Byzantine Sicilians happened especially in the east and part of the lands were even re-occupied before being quashed. Agricultural items such as oranges, lemons, pistachio and sugar cane were brought to Sicily, the native Christians were allowed freedom of religion but had to pay an extra tax to their rulers. However, the Emirate of Sicily began to fragment as inner-dynasty related quarrels took place between the Muslim regime. By the 11th century mainland southern Italian powers were hiring ferocious Norman merecenaries, who were Christian descendants of the Vikings; it was the Normans under Roger I who freed Sicily from the Muslims. After taking Apulia and Calabria, he occupied Messina with an army of 700 knights. In 1068, Roger Guiscard and his men defeated the Muslims at Misilmeri but the most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo, which led to Sicily being completely in Norman control by 1091. Palermo continued on as the capital under the Normans. Roger's son, Roger II of Sicily, was ultimately able to raise the status of the island, along with his holds of Malta and Southern Italy to a kingdom in 1130. During this period the Kingdom of Sicily was prosperous and politically powerful, becoming one of the wealthiest states in all of Europe; even wealthier than England. Significantly, immigrants from Northern Italy and Campania arrived during this period and linguistically the island became Latinised, in terms of church it would become completely Roman Catholic, previously under the Byzantines it had been more Eastern Christian. After a century the Norman Hauteville dynasty died out, the last direct descendent and heir of Roger; Constance married Emperor Henry VI. This eventually led to the crown of Sicily been passed on to the Hohenstaufen Dynasty who were Germanic peoples from Swabia. Conflict between the Hohenstaufen house and the Papacy, led in 1266 to Pope Innocent IV crowning Angevin Dynasty duke Charles I as the king of both Sicily and Naples. Strong opposition of the French officialdom due to mistreatment and taxation saw the local peoples of Sicily rise up, leading in 1282 to an insurrection known as the War of the Sicilian Vespers, which eventually saw almost the entire French population on the island killed. During the war the Sicilians turned to Peter III of the Kingdom of Aragon for support after being rejected by the Pope. Peter gained control of Sicily from the French though the French retained control of the Kingdom of Naples. The wars continued until the peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, which saw Frederick III recognised as king of the Isle of Sicily, while Charles II was recognised as the king of Naples by Pope Boniface VIII. Sicily was ruled as an independent kingdom by relatives of the kings of Aragon until 1409 and then as part of the Crown of Aragon. The Spanish Inquisition in 1492 saw Ferdinand I decreeing the explusion of every single Jew from Sicily. The island was hit by two very serious earthquakes in the east in both 1542 and 1693, just a few years before the latter earthquake the island was struck by a ferocious plague. There were revolts during the 17th century, but these were quelled with significant force especially the revolts of Palermo and Messina. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 saw Sicily assigned to the House of Savoy, however this period of rule lasted only seven years as it was exchanged for the island of Sardinia with Emperor Charles VI of the Austrian Habsburg Dynasty. While the Austrians were concerned with the War of the Polish Succession, a Bourbon prince, Charles from Spain was able to conquer Sicily and Naples. At first Sicily was able to remain as an independent kingdom under personal union, while the Bourbons ruled over both from Naples. However the advent of Napoleon's First French Empire saw Naples taken at the Battle of Campo Tenese and Bonapartist Kings of Naples were instated. Ferdinand III the Bourbon was forced to retreat to Sicily which he was still in complete control of with the help of British naval protection. Following this Sicily joined the Napoleonic Wars, after the wars were won Sicily and Naples formally merged as the Two Sicilies under the Bourbons. Major revolutionary movements occurred in 1820 and 1848 against the Bourbon government with Sicily seeking independence; the second of which, the 1848 revolution was successful and resulted in a sixteen month period of independence for Sicily, until the armed forces of the Bourbons regained control by May 1849. After the Expedition of the Thousand led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, Sicily became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860 as part of the risorgimento. The conquest started at Marsala and was finally completed with the Siege of Geata where the final Bourbons were expelled and Garibaldi announced his dictatorship in the name of Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia. An anti-Savoy revolt pushing for Sicilian independence erupted in 1866 at Palermo: this was quelled brutally by the Italians within just a week. The Sicilian (and the wider mezzogiorno) economy collapsed, leading to an unprecedented wave of emigration. Organisations of workers and peasants known as the Fasci Siciliani, who were leftist and separatist groups rose and caused the Italian government to impose martial law again in 1894. The Mafia, a loose confederation of organised crime networks, grew in influence in the late 19th century; the Fascist regime began suppressing them in the 1920s with some success. There was an allied invasion of Sicily during World War II starting on July 10, 1943, the invasion of Sicily was one of the causes of the July 25 crisis; in general the Allied victors were warmly embraced by the Sicilian population. Italy became a Republic in 1946 and as part of the Constitution of Italy, Sicily was one of the five regions given special status as an autonomous region. Both the partial Italian land reform and special funding from the Italian government's Cassa per il Mezzogiorno (Fund for the South) from 1950 to 1984, helped the Sicilian economy improve.

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SARDINIA

Sardinia has sustained human populations for many thousands of years. In 1979 human remains were found that were dated to 150,000 BC. In 2004, in a cave in Logudoro, a human phalanx was found that was dated to ~250,000 BC. In Prehistory Sardinia's inhabitants developed a trade in obsidian, a stone used for the production of the first tools, and this activity brought Sardinians into contact with most of the Mediterranean people. Desiccated grapes, recently found in several locations, were DNA tested and proved to be the oldest grapes in the world, dating back to 1200 BC. The Cannonau wine is made with these grapes and may qualify as the mother of all the European wines. From Neolithic times until the Roman Empire, the Nuragic civilisation took shape on the island. Still today, more than 9,000 Nuraghe survive. It is speculated that, among others, the Shardana people landed in Sardinia coming from the eastern Mediterranean. Shardana had joined the Shekelesh and others to form the coalition of the Sea Peoples, but were defeated by Ramesses III around 1180 BC in Egypt. Shardana and Shekelesh were also called by the Egyptians as the "people from the faraway islands", implying that Shardana were already residents of Sardinia at the time of the Egyptian expedition. This assertion holds some truth; in fact most of the tombe dei giganti have a tombstone shaped like a ship vertically dug into the ground, bearing witness to their sea traveling activities. According to some linguistic studies, the town of Sardis (in Lydia) would have been their starting point from which they would have reached the Tyrrhenian Sea, dividing into what were to become the Sardinians and the Etruscans. However most theories regarding the original population of Sardinia have been formulated prior to genetics research and in the traditional frame of east-west movements. Genetics seem to show Sardinia's population to be genetically quite distant from their neighbors. This is principally due to genetic drift, though other reasons, such as ties with pre-Indo-European Neolithic peoples may also have contributed to this distance. The density, extensiveness and sheer size of the architectural remains from the Neolithic period, points to a considerable population of the island. Beginning around 1000 BC, Phoenician mariners established several ports of trade on the Sardinian coast. In 509 BC, war broke out between the native Nuragic people and the Phoenician settlers. The settlers called for help from Carthage, and the island became a province in the Carthaginian Empire. In 238 BC, after being defeated by the Roman Republic in the First Punic War, Carthage was forced to fight an uprising against former mercenaries who had not received their promised pay in a conflict known as the Mercenary War, Rome took this as an opportunity to annex Corsica and Sardinia without resistance from the overstretched Carthaginians. During the Roman period, the geographer Ptolemy noted that it was inhabited by the following peoples, from north to south: the Tibulati and the Corsi, the Coracenses, the Carenses and the Cunusitani, the Salcitani and the Lucuidonenses, the Æsaronenses, the Æchilenenses (also called Cornenses), the Rucensi, the Celsitani and the Corpicenses, the Scapitani and the Siculensi, the Neapolitani and the Valentini, the Solcitani and the Noritani. From 456 - 534, Sardinia was a part of the short-lived kingdom of the Vandals in North Africa, until it was reconquered by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. During this time a considerable number of Germanic Vandals and Iranic Alans settled on the island. Under the Byzantines, the imperial representative was a judge who governed from the southern city of Caralis. Byzantine rule was practically nonexistent in the mountainous Barbagia region in the eastern part of the island, and an independent kingdom persisted there from the sixth through ninth centuries. Beginning in the eighth century, Arabs and Berbers began raiding Sardinia. Especially after the muslim conquest of Sicily in 832, the Byzantines were unable to effectively defend their most distant province, and the provincial judge assumed independent authority. To provide for local defense, he divided the island into four giudicati, Gallura, Logudoro, Arborea, and Caralis. By 900, these districts had become four independent constitutional monarchies. At various times, these fell under the sway of Genoa and Pisa. In 1323, the Kingdom of Aragon began a campaign to conquer Sardinia; the giudicato of Arborea successfully resisted this and for a time came to control nearly the entire island, but its last ruler William III of Narbonne, was eventually defeated by the Aragonese in the decisive Battle of Sanluri, June 30, 1409. The native population of the city of Alghero (S'Alighera in Sardinian, L'Alguer in Catalan) was expelled and the city repopulated by the Catalan invaders, whose descendants still speak Catalan. After the merging of the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, Sardinia was incorporated into the newly created national entity, Spain. The town of Sassari proclaimed itself free Republic, allied to Genoa, in 1290. Under Spain, Sardinians were regularly employed on the royal Spanish fleet. On October 7, 1571, at the Battle of Lepanto, Sardinian mariners on board the admiralship of Infante Don John of Austria, half brother of Felipe II, boarded the Turkish admiralship, overpowered the crew, and cut off the head of a Turkish admiral. The sight of the admiral's head on a spear put such a fear in the heart of the Turks that they abandoned the fight and completely surrendered to the Christians. This was the first time Turks lost out to Europeans, signalling a trend of military decline and defeats from which Turks never recovered. In 1718 Sardinia became an 'independent' vassal kingdom under the House of Savoy, rulers of Piedmont. In 1792, Jean-Paul Marat, son of a Sardinian father from Cagliari and a Swiss mother, was one of the triumvirate leading the French Revolution. In 1793, Sardinians rebelled, demanding autonomy in exchange for helping to defeat French invasion forces. Autonomy was granted in the combined kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, but after the French threat to the kingdom lessened, the king took back his authority.
In 1860, Vittorio Emanuele II, King of Sardinia became also the first King of Italy after conquering the rest of the peninsula.

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PIEDMONT

In 1046, the counts of the House of Savoy added Piedmont to their main territory of Savoy, with a capital at Chambéry (now in France). The County of Savoy was elevated to a duchy in 1416, and Duke Emanuele Filiberto moved the seat to Turin in 1563. In 1720, the Duke of Savoy became King of Sardinia, founding what evolved into the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia and increasing Turin's importance as a European capital. The Republic of Alba was created in 1796 as a French client republic in Piedmont before the area was annexed by France in 1801. In June 1802 a new client republic, the Subalpine Republic, was established in Piedmont and in September it was also annexed. In the congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored, and furthermore received the Republic of Genoa to strengthen it as a barrier against France. Piedmont was an initial springboard for Italy's unification in 1859-1861, following earlier unsuccessful wars against the Austrian Empire in 1820-1821 and 1848-1849. This process is sometimes referred to as Piedmontisation. However, the efforts were later contradicted by efforts of rural farmers. The House of Savoy became Kings of Italy, and Turin briefly became the capital of Italy. However, the addition of territory paradoxically reduced Piedmont's importance to the kingdom, and the capital was moved to Florence, and then to Rome. One remaining recognition of Piedmont's historical role was that the crown prince of Italy was known as the Prince of Piedmont.

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MOLISE

Molise was populated for thousands of years. It has a proud heritage. For example the arena in Larino predates Rome's Colosseum and the ruins at Sepinum are remarkably well preserved and provide an insight into the sophistication of the Samnite tribes who, along with the Frentani, dominated this region. The Samnites were a hardy race of highlanders who bested the Romans in battle for a long time. After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD Molise was invaded by the Goths (535 AD) and then by the Lombards in 572, and annexed to the Duchy of Benevento. A very troubled period began with the invasions of the Saracens, that in 860 AD destroyed Isernia, Telese, Alife, Sepino, Boiano and Venafro. By the 10th century there were 9 countdoms: Venafro, Larino, Trivento, Bojano, Isernia, Campomarino, Termoli, Sangro, Pietrabbondante. In 1095 the most powerful of them, Bojano, came under the rule of the Norman Hugo I of Molhouse, who most probably gave his name to the region; his successor Ugo II was Count of Molise in 1144. The province enjoyed a resurgence towards the end of the thirteenth century. The cathedral in Larino was built in 1314. The Franciscan monastery, in the same town, was dedicated, along with its rectangular bell tower, in 1312. In the 16th century Molise was included to the Province of Capitanata (Apulia) and in 1806 became an autonomous Province, included in the Abruzzi region. In the 19th century there was a general worsening of the economic conditions of the population, and this gave rise, under the newly established Kingdom of Italy (1861), to brigandage and a massive emigration not only abroad but also to more industrial Italian areas. The French novelist Alexandre Dumas, père was in Molise at the time of Garibaldi. It was in Molise that he conceived his idea for The Blood Reign, based on a true episode that took place in the town of Larino. Massive destruction occurred during World War II, until finally the Allied Forces were able to land at Termoli, in September 1943. Huge Allied land forces were based in Campobasso which was called "Maple Leaf City" by the Canadian troops. Molise is the youngest Italian region, since it was established in 1963, when the region "Abruzzi e Molise" was split into two regions, which, however, retain a common identity both geographically and in their historical and traditional heritage.

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MARCHE

The Marche were known in the ancient time as the Picenum territory. The coastal area was occupied by the Senones, a Gaul tribe. They were conquered by the Romans in the Battle of Sentinum in 295 BC. The Romans then founded numerous colonies in the areas, connecting them to Rome through the Via Flaminia and the Via Salaria. Ascoli was a seat of the Italic resistance during the Social War (91–88 BC). After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region was invaded by the Goths. After the Gothic War, it was part of the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna (Ancona, Fano, Pesaro, Rimini, and Senigallia formed the so-called Pentapolis). After the fall of the Exarchate they were briefly a Lombard possession, but was conquered by Charlemagne in the late 8th century. In the 9th-11th centuries the marches of Camerino, Fermo and Ancona were created, whence the modern name. The Marche were thenceforth nominally part of the Papal States, but most of the territory was under local lords, while the major cities ruled themselves as free communes. In the 12th century the commune of Ancona resisted both to the imperial authority of Frederick Barbarossa and to those of the Republic of Venice, and was a maritime republic of its own. An effective attempt of restoring the Papal suzerainty by the legate Gil de Albornoz in the 14th century, was not long-lived. During the Renaissance the region was mostly characterized by the struggle between rival aristocratic families, such as the houses of Malatesta of Rimini, Pesaro and Fano, and that of the Montefeltro of Urbino. From the 16th century the Marche were again firmly part of the Papal States: the last independent entity, Duchy of Urbino, was dissolved in 1631. In the Napoleonic period the short lived Republic of Ancona was created in 1797, after which the region was merged with the Roman Republic and the Kingdom of Italy (1808-1813), to which followed a short occupation by Joachim Murat. Thenceforth the Marche remained under Papal rule until November 4, 1860, when they were annexed to the unified Kingdom of Italy by a plebiscite.

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LOMBARDY

The area of current Lombardy was settled at least since the 2nd millennium BC, as shown by the archaeological findings of ceramics, arrows, axes and carved stones. In the following centuries it was inhabited first by some Etruscan tribes, who founded the city of Mantua and spread the use of writing; later, starting from the 5th century BC, the area was invaded by the Celt (Gaul) tribes. This people founded several cities (including Milan) and extended their rule to the Adriatic Sea. Their development was halted by the Roman expansion in the Padan Plain from the 3rd century BC onwards: after centuries of struggle, in 194 BC the entire area of what is now Lombardy became a Roman province with the name of Gallia Cisalpina ("Gaul on the nearer side of the Alps"). The Roman culture and language overwhelmed the former civilization in the following years, and Lombardy became one of the most developed and rich areas of Italy with the construction of a wide array of roads and the development of agriculture and trade. Important figures like Pliny the Elder (in Como) and Virgil (in Mantua) were born here. In late antiquity the strategic role of Lombardy was emphasized by the temporary moving of the capital of the Western Empire to Milan. Here, in 313 AD, emperor Constantine issued the famous edict that gave freedom of confession to all religions within the Empire. During and after the fall of the Western Empire, Lombardy suffered heavily from destruction brought about by a series of barbaric invasions. The last and most effective was that of the Lombards, or Longobardi, who came around 570s and whose long-lasting reign (whose capital was set in Pavia) gave the current name to the region. There was a close relationship between the Frankish, Bavarian and Lombard nobility for many centuries. After the initial struggles, relationships between the Lombard people and the Latin-speaking people improved. In the end, the Lombard language and culture assimilated with the Latin culture, leaving evidence in many names, the legal code and laws among other things. The end of Lombard rule came in 774, when the Frankish king Charlemagne conquered Pavia and annexed the "Kingdom of Italy" (mostly northern and central Italy) to his empire. The former Lombard dukes and nobles were replaced by other German vassals, prince-bishops or marquises. However, to this day the population is still the descendants of the Lombards. The 11th century marked a significant boom in the region's economy, due to improved trading and, mostly, agricultural conditions. In a similar way to other areas of Italy, this led to a growing self-acknowledgement of the cities, whose increasing richness made them able to defy the traditional feudal supreme power, represented by the German emperors and their local legates. This process reached its apex in the 12th and 13th century, when different Lombard Leagues formed by allied cities of Lombardy, usually led by Milan, managed to defeat the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick I, at Legnano, and his grandson Frederick II, at Parma. This did not prevent other important Lombard centres, like Cremona (then rivalling Milan for size and wealth) and others, from supporting the imperial power if this could grant them an immediate advantage. Taking advantage of the flourishing agriculture, the area around the Po River, together with Venice and Tuscany, continued to expand its industry and commerce until it became the economic centre of the whole of Europe. The enterprising class of the communes extended its trade and banking activities well into northern Europe, and the name "Lombardy" came to designate the whole of Northern Italy until the 15th century. From the 14th century onwards, the instability created by the unceasing internal and external struggles ended in the creation of noble seignories, the most significant of which were those of the Viscontis (later Sforzas) in Milan and of the Gonzagas in Mantua. In the 15th century the Duchy of Milan was a major political, economical and military force at the European level. Milan and Mantua became two centres of the Renaissance whose culture, with men like Leonardo da Vinci and Mantegna, and pieces of art were highly regarded (as The Last Supper by Leonardo Da Vinci). This richness, however, attracted the now more organized armies of national powers like France and Austria, which waged a lengthy battle for Lombardy in the late 15th-early 16th century. After the decisive battle of Pavia (1525), the Duchy of Milan became an Austrian possession, which was passed on to the royal Austrian Habsburgs of Spain: the new rulers did little to improve the economy of Lombardy, instead imposing a growing series of taxes needed to support their unending series of European wars. The eastern part of modern Lombardy, with cities like Bergamo and Brescia, was under the Republic of Venice, which had begun to extend its influence in the area from the 14th century onwards (see also Italian Wars). Pestilences (like that of 1648, described by Alessandro Manzoni in his I Promessi Sposi) and the generally declining conditions of Italy's economy in the 17th and 18th centuries halted the further development of Lombardy. In 1706 the Austrians came to power and introduced some economical and social measures which granted a certain recovery. Their rule was smashed in the late 18th century by the French armies, however, and Lombardy became one of the semi-independent provinces of the Napoleonic Empire. The restoration of Austrian rule in 1815, in the form of the puppet state called Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, had however to contend with new social ideals introduced by the Napoleonic era. Lombardy became one of the intellectual centres of the process which led to the Unification of Italy. The popular republic of 1848 was short-lived, and Lombardy was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy 1859 as a result of the Second Italian Independence War. Starting from the late 19th century, and with a boom after World War II, Lombardy confirmed its status as the most economically developed area of Italy. When annexed to the Kingdom of Italy in 1859 Lombardy achieved his actual territorial shape by adding the Oltrepo pavese (formerly southern part of Novara's Province) to the province of Pavia. In January 1 1927 due to a general setup ordered by the Mussolinian Government, Varese became independent by subtracting to Como some 40 towns up to the Lake Maggiore and to Milan the Gallarate's and Busto Arsizio's counties. Two other provinces had been constituted in march 6 1992. Lodi's province was formed cutting out of Milan's southern territories up to Po river. Just one town (San Colombano al Lambro) didn't agree to the new settlement and, even if 40 km far away from the Provincial capital, is still depending from Milan. Lecco split away from of Como's Province by cutting out Lake of Como's eastern territories. A new province constitution had been programmed since june 11 2004, the Brianza's, having Monza as administrative center, but actuation has still to come.

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LIGURIA

Liguria is a very old name, dating back to pre-Roman times. Ancient Ligures settled the Mediterranean coast from Rhône to Arno, but later Gallic migration mixed and produced the Gallo-Ligurian culture. The region was officially subdued and colonised by the Roman Republic during the 2nd century BC. During the Middle Ages, Genoa gradually gained control of most of Liguria, which shared most of the city's history, and, with a few breaks in the 15th and early 16th century when the area was under either Milanese or French control, the Republic of Genoa ruled the area until 1796, when the French Revolutionary general Napoleon Bonaparte reorganized the area into the Ligurian Republic. The Ligurian Republic proved short-lived, however, and was annexed by France in 1805. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the area was annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia.

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LAZIO (Latium)

The name of the region also survives in the tribal designation of the ancient population of Latins, from whom the Romans originated. In Roman mythology, the shadowy king Latinus allegedly gave his name to the region. Modern linguists postulate origins in a Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) root *stela- (to spread, extend), expressing the idea of "flat land" (in contrast to the local Sabine high country) but the name may originate from an earlier, non Indo-European one. Latium, originally inhabited by the Latins, extended its boundaries to the territories of the Sanniti, the Marsi and Campania thanks to the Roman conquests, taking in the lands of the Ernici, the Equi, the Aurunci and Volsci. This territory was called Latium Novi to differentiate it from Latium veteres, which indicated the original boundaries. During the Augustus' administrative system, Latium - together with the present region of Campania- was the first Italian region. After the Gothic war (535-554) and the Byzantine conquest, this region regained its freedom, because the "Roman Duchy" became the property of the Eastern Emperor. However the long wars against the Longobards impaired the region which was seized by the Roman Bishop who already had several properties in those territories. The strengthening of the religious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led to continuous power struggles between lords and the Roman bishop until the middle of the XVI century. Innocent III tried to strengthen his own territorial power, wishing to assert his authority on the provincial administrations of Tuscia, Campagna and Marittima through the Church's representatives, in order to tear down the Colonna's power. Other popes tried to do the same. During the Avignon period the feudal lords' power increased thanks to the absence of the Pope from Rome. Small communes, and Rome above all, opposed the lords power raise and with Cola di Rienzo tried to put themselves up as antagonists of the ecclesiastical power. Between 1353 and 1367 the restoration of the pontifical authority brought to a total retrieval of Latium and the rest of the Pontifical States. From the middle of the XVI century the pontifical power's victory unified Latium's history with that of the Pontifical States[citation needed] becaming the provincial administrations of St. Peter's estate, with a governor in Viterbo and of Marittima and Campagna and one in Frosinone. After the short Roman Republic and the region's annexation to France, by Napoleon I, Latium became again part of the Pontifical States. In 1870 when the French troops abandoned Rome, General Cadorna entered the pontifical territory, occupying Rome on the 20th of September and Latium was enclosed within the Kingdom of Italy.

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FRIULI

HISTORY
The name comes from the Latin name of the town of Cividale, ancient capital of the Lombard duchy, which used to be "Forum Iulii" ("Julius' forum", named after Julius Caesar). This region was created after World War II to solve the problem of Trieste, which had lost its natural hinterland, that was the major part of Venezia Giulia and has been included in the then-existing country of Yugoslavia. Therefore it was decided to aggregate the historical region of Friuli to Trieste.

WINE
The winemaking history of the Friuli-Venezia Giulia has been strongly influenced by the history of the Friuli and Venezia Giulia regions that were important stops along the Mediterranean spice route from the Byzantine Empire to the trading center of Venice. During the Middle Ages, travelers passing through this area brought grapevines from Macedonia and Anatolia. Under the Habsburg reign, the French varieties grape varieties were introduced. Prior to the phylloxera epidemic over 350 grape varieties were grown in the region. During the 19th century, the region served as a major Mediterranean port for the Austro-Hungarian Empire which installed a teutonic influence in the people of the area. Following the phylloxera epidemic, winemaking in the Friuli region was very muted and did not begin to garner much attention till the 1970s. The international popularity of Pinot Grigio in the 1980s and 1990s help to change the dynamic of Friuli-Venezia Giulia winemaking. Prior to this time vineyard owners sold their grapes in bulk to co-ops and négociant-like wineries that would blend the grapes together. With the success of Mario Schiopetto in bottling and marketing the product of his own vineyard, other vineyard owners followed suit and began opening up small wineries of their own. Most of the vineyards of the Friuli-Venezia Giulia are located in the southern half of the region, including the large wine regions of Collio Goriziano, Colli Orientali del Friuli, Isonzo and Carso. The Lison-Pramaggiore region is shared with the Veneto. Smaller regions such as the Annia, Aquileia, Grave and Latisana are located in the central and western part of the region around the city of Pordenone. These smaller regions are located on alluvial plains with soils composed of gravel and sand. The wines made here are lighter and less elegant than the Friuli wines made in the major southern wine regions. Unlike other Friuli regions which require 100%, a varietal wine in the Graves and Aquileia zones only need 85% of the grape variety with the Latisana and Annia zones requiring 90%. More red wine is produced in these zones than in the rest of the Friuli with Merlot, Cabernet franc and Cabernet Sauvignon being the leading varietals. With wine production still, frizzante and spumante styles are produced from Chardonnay, Pinot Bianco, Pinot Grigio, Friulano and Verduzzo. The southeast province of Gorizia is home to the DOCs of the Collio region, most notably Collio Goriziano. Part of the region's vineyards extend over the border with Slovenia and some Slovenian wines can bear the designation Collio. The area benefits from its location among the foothills of the Alps which keeps the cool winds that come off the Adriatic to moderate the climate. The cool helps maintain the acidity levels in the grape. The region's best vineyards are found in the clay and sandstone soil around the comune of Cormons. The region is dominated by white wine production, making five times more white than red wine. Collio wine is typically full bodied and rich, made as a varietal or blend of Friulano, Ribolla Gialla, Malvasia Istriana, Chardonnay, Pinot Bianco, Pinot Grigio and Sauvignon blanc. Red wine under the designation Collio Rosso is made from a blend of Merlot, Cabernet franc and Cabernet Sauvignon. The general Collio Bianco designation can also include the white grapes Müller-Thurgau, Picolit, Riesling, Traminer and Welschriesling as well as the white juice from the red wine grapes of Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Nero. Located to the northwest of the Collio Goriziano, the Colli Orientali del Friuli DOC shares similar vineyard soils and climate as the Collio region. The grape varieties are also similar though Ribolla Gialla and Picolit takes a more prominent role here as does the local grape Verduzzo. The three grapes are used to make varietal wines under the Colli Orientali del Friuli DOC. Picolit is known particularly for the quality of the dessert wine it produces and has 2 DOCG dedicated to its production in Udine. Red wine production is also more promninet in the this region though it is still less than half the production of white wine. The red wines include varietal forms of Merlot, Cabernet franc and Cabernet Sauvignon as well as red wines made from the local Pignolo, Refosco, Refosco dal Peduncolo Rosso, Schioppettino and Tazzelenghe. The region is divided into 3 sub districts which includes Ramandolo in the north and the DOCG of the same name as well as the dessert wine Verduzzo di Ramandolo. In the center of the zone is the Cialla district which makes dry wines under the designation Cialla Bianco and Cialla Rosso as well as sweet and off dry wines made from Picolit and Verduzzo. Other notable wines from this district include Refosco dal Peduncolo Rosso & Cialla Schioppettino. The far southern district is the Corno di Rosazzo which is heavily planted with Ribolla Gialla that is believed to have originated in the vineyards of the local abbey over a 1000 years ago. The area is also known for its off-dry to sweet Rosazzo Picolit and dry Rosazzo Pignolo. The Isonzo river and Carso wine regions are located in the far southeastern part of Friuli-Venezia Giulia bordering Slovenia. The Isonzo region located on a plain of alluvial deposits directly south of Collio along the Isonzo river. The best vineyards are located in the northeast, close to Cormons. The wine regions have predominately a maritime climate with more rainfall than other Friuli regions. The region is known for its sparkling Pinot bianco as well as dry white wines made from Chardonnay, Malvasia Istriana and Sauvignon blanc. Other Isonzo DOC designated wines include dry, off dry and sparkling wines made from Gewürztraminer, Cabernet franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Franconia, Moscato Giallo, Moscato Rosa, Pinot Grigio, Pinot Nero, Refosco, Riesling, Schioppettino, Friulano, Verduzzo and Welschriesling. The Vendemmia Tardiva is a late harvest wine made from a varietal style or blend of Chardonnay, Pinot Biano, Friulano and Verduzzo. Located south of the Isonzo zone, near the city of Trieste, is the Carso zone. Situated on the Istrian Peninsula, the wine region has a maritime climate that is well suited to production of the local Terrano used to make red wine. Wine made from this grape are known for their high acidity and good food pairing with Slavic cuisine. The white wines made from the Malvasia Istriana are highly regarded for their honey-almond notes. Other Carso wines can be made from the following grapes-Vitovska, Cabernet franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot, Pinot Grigio, Sauvignon blanc and Traminer. Over 30 different grapes varieties are grown in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia including international varieties such as Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot as well as local varieties like Refosco dal peduncolo rosso, Schioppettino, Friulano, Ribolla gialla and Verduzzo. Of the local varieties, the Friulano is the most well known and important varieties producing crisp, floral wines that develop notes of nuts and fennel as it ages. The grape was widely known as Tocai Friulano but in 2006 the European Union banned names that have some similarity or association with the Hungarian wine Tokaji. The very acidic Ribolla gialla grape was primarily used as a blending component till winemakers started to apply the techniques used on Chardonnay (such as malolactic fermentation) to produce softer, more buttery wines that still retain the crisp, lemon edge of the grape. Wines made from Verduzzo have peach and nutty flavors in their youth but develop more honeyed flavors as the wine ages. The high acidity of the grape works well in sweet production where in regions like Ramandolo it is often dried to make a passito wine. The Picolot grape also does well in sweet wines where it can produce elegant, floral wines that have a dry finish.[5] In contrast to the thin, sometimes bland Pinot grigio produces in other parts of the Tre-Venezie, well made examples of Friuli Pinot grigio is known for its fuller body and delicate peach, almond and green apple flavors. Sauvignon blancs are made in a style reminiscent Sancerre with smoke, herbs and elements of honey and hazelnut. Some of the most expensive Friuli wines are made from the Picolit grape which is prone to grape diseases and mutations which cause the vine to lose its flowers and grape clusters. In most years, less than half of a vineyard Picolit crop will survive and be able to make wine. The light, honeyed dessert wine that its can produce is often in high demand for such little supply. Along with the internationally styled Merlots, Friuli does make some distinctive red wines from their local grape varieties. Tazzelenghe (meaning "tonguecutter") produces a very tannic and fruity wine that mellows as it ages but maintains a good amount of its fruitiness. The Schioppettino (meaning "gunshot" and sometimes called Ribolla nera) also produces very tannic wines with spice and pepper notes behind the ripe fruit flavors. The most well known local red wine variety is the Refosco dal peduncolo rosso (different from regular Refosco) which produces an herbal full bodied wine that ages well. Refosco is noted for its high acidity with blueberry and blackberry notes.

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EMILIA ROMAGNA

HISTORY
The name Emilia-Romagna has roots in the Ancient Rome legacy in these lands. Emilia refers to via Æmilia, an important Roman way connecting Rome to the northern part of Italy. Romagna is a corruption of Romània; when Ravenna was the capital of the Italian portion of the Byzantine Empire, the Lombards extended the official name of the Empire to the lands around Ravenna. Emilia-Romagna was part of the Etruscan world and in following was passed on to the Romans, who built it the Aemilian Way, for which the region was named. The coastal area of Emilia, which was ruled under the Byzantines from 540 to 751, became known as the separate region of Romagna. In the Middle Ages, the history of both Emilia and Romagna was the history of its individual cities. In the 16th century, most of these were included into the Papal States, but the territory of Parma and Piacenza and Modena remained independent until Emilia- Romagna was included into the Italian kingdom in 1859-1861.

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CAMPANIA

HISTORY
Campania was part of the Magna Graecia, the Greek colonies of southern Italy; the first Greek colony was founded at Cumae, north of present day Naples, in the 8th century BC. Etruscans and Samnites gave way to the expanding Roman Republic. In 217 BC Hannibal entered Campania and, by burning the crops of these fertile lowlands, hoped to provoke the Roman commander Fabius Maximus Cunctator (the delayer). Hannibal failed in his attempt; nor did he weaken Roman prestige enough to provoke any of the Campanian towns to rebel. Fabius, in turn, failed to trap Hannibal in Campania when Hannibal used the ruse of tying burning brands to the horns of cattle, so drawing off the force guarding a vital pass out of Campania. In 216 BC, however, after Hannibal's victory at the battle of Cannae, Capua, the leading city of Campania, wavered. They first requested complete equality with Rome, including the demand that one of the Roman consuls should be elected from Capua. When Rome rejected this, they opened negotiations with Hannibal who was more than willing to endorse the full independence they sought. The defection of Capua did not however inspire other Campanian towns so Capua was isolated. The Romans, in Hannibal's absence, were eventually able to build siege works round the city. As Hannibal proved unable to break the siege, Capua was eventually starved into submission in 211 BC. Campania was the breadbasket of Rome until the acquisition of Egypt brought greater supplies of grain, resulting in the conversion of smallholdings in Campania to the characteristic latifundia that lasted from the Empire to modern times. Goths and the Byzantine Empire struggled for control during the 5th and 6th centuries, followed by the Lombards, who established the Duchy of Benevento. The Normans (Robert Guiscard) conquered and re-unified Campania during the 11th and 12th centuries, seizing southern Italy from the Byzantines, forming the Kingdom of Sicily. After the Hohenstaufen confrontation with the Papacy, the kingdom passed to Charles of Anjou who retained his mainland territories after he lost Sicily (1282) as the Kingdom of Naples, reunited with Sicily by Alfonso V of Aragon (1442) who styled himself the 'King of Two Sicilies', a title that was subsequently revived during the Spanish domination (1504 – 1713) of both kingdoms. The Bourbons succeeded in 1713: prior to the unification of Italy, Campania formed part of the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

GOURMET
The pizza in its modern aspect and taste was born in Naples. Historical and original pizza from Naples are pizza fritta (fried pizza), with or without being stuffed with ricotta cheese; if stuffed it is called Calzone (like single part of trousers); pizza Marinara (pizza seamans'style), with just olive oil, tomato sauce and garlic; and the queen of all pizza, the pizza Margherita with olive oil, tomato sauce, mozzarella cheese and some basil leaves. Spaghetti is a well known dish from southern Italy and Campania. Neapolitans were among the first Europeans to use tomatoes not only as ornamental plant, but also as food and garnishment. Campania is also home to Lacryma Christi, Fiano, Aglianico, Greco di Tufo, Pere 'e palomma, Ischitano, Taburno, Solopaca, Taurasi wines. Campania is regarded throughout Italy as the producer of the best Mozzarella di Bufala (Mozzarella made from buffalo milk), fiordilatte (flower of milk) made from cow milk, ricotta from sheep or buffalo, provolone from cow milk, and caciotta made from goat milk. Buffalo cattle are in Salerno and Caserta. Mozzarella is very famous for being soft and chewy cheese and melts gently if exposed to heat. It just smells and tastes of milk, so it is appreciated for being not stinky. It is such a good cheese that there are rising mozzarella producers all over the world, in USA, in Australia, and even in China where cheese it is not very appreciated due to genetic reasons (2 Chinese out of 3 when becoming adults lose their capability to digest lactose). Very famous are the cakes and pies from Campania. The pastiera pie it is made in the Easter period. Also casatiello and tortano are Easter bread-cakes made adding pork grease and/or oil to the dough of the bread and are garnished with chops of salami and various chops of cheese mixed and cooked with the bread. The babà cake it is a well known neapolitan gourmandise, best served with Rum or limoncello liquor. It is an old Austrian cake which arrived in Campania during Austrian domination of the Kingdom of Naples and here was modified to became a "walking cake" for citizens always in hurry for work and other occupations. The sfogliatella is another pasty cake from Amalfi Coast. Last century it became famous throughout Italy, and now is beginning to be known worldwide as well as are becoming famous the zeppole cake. Limoncello is a world renowned liquor invented in the Sorrento peninsula. Struffoli, little balls fried dough dipped in honey, are enjoyed during the Christmas holidays. Zeppole, which is eaten on Saint Joseph's day is another cake enjoyed around the world. Derived from some similar dishes from France, other famous Campanian dishes are also the so called Russian salad made of potatoes in mayonnaise garnished with shrimps and vegetables in vineger. Strange to know the Russians call this dish Olivier Salad and the Germans called it italian salad. Also from France domination comes the "gattò" or "gateau di patate" (pie made of boiled potatoes cooked in oven). Fish-based dishes, such as "insalata di mare" (sea salad), "zuppa di polpo" (boiled soup of octopus), "zuppa di cozze" (soup of mussels), are popular. Another dish is "frittelle di mare" (fritters with seaweed), made with edible poseidonia algae. There are a number of famous dishes made with, such as "triglie al cartoccio" (red mullet in the bag), and "alici marinate" (raw anchovyies in olive oil). The island of Ischia is famous for its fish dishes as well as cooked rabbit. Campania is home to the beautiful and tasty lemons of Sorrento, which were much loved by German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: "Kennst du das Land, wo die Zitronen blühn?" ("Do you know the land where the lemon-trees bloom?), Goethe, Mignon. Also from Campania are the friarielli or friggiarelli vegetables. Friarielli are broccoli that taste bitter. This gives this vegetable an intense taste, and make it good to be fried and often served with sausages. Famous worldwide are the nuts of Campania from Salerno and Benevento. Campanian cuisine distinguish itself into various typical zones, Neapolitan is rich of seafood; Salernitan, which mix up mountain and sea; Benevantan and Avellinese from inner and mountain land; Casertan and Aversana rich of fresh vegetables and mozarella cheese; Cilento cuisine typical of the foremost south of Campania; Sorrento cuisine which melts together the cuisine from Naples and from Salerno, and the mountain ones, because Sorrento peninsula it is a mountain which elevates up to from the sea. Calitrian cuisine is renowned in the region of Campania for being very tasty and rather spicy. Typical hand-made pasta dishes include cingul', the local dish par excellence. This is short, twirly pasta boiled and then served with a thick, tasty tomato sauce. Other varieties of pasta with the same sauce include lahan' and aurecchi' r' preut'- (priest’s ears in the local dialect). Others are annazze', served with delicious hot tomato sauce and pecorino cheese; and sciliend' (a special vermicelli-like pasta) with a condiment of garlic-fried oil and hot chili pepper.


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CALABRIA

Calabria was first settled by Italic Oscan-speaking tribes. Two of these tribes included the Oenotri (roughly translated into the "vine-cultivators") and the Itali. Greek contact with the latter resulted in the entire peninsula (modern Italy) taking the name of the tribe. Greeks settled heavily along the coast at an early date and several of their settlements, including the first Italian city called Rhegion (Reggio Calabria), and the next ones Sybaris, Kroton (Crotone), and Locri, were numbered among the leading cities of Magna Graecia during the 6th and 5th centuries BC. Conquered by the Romans in the 3rd century BC, the region never regained its former prosperity. The Greeks were conquered by the 3rd century BC by roving Oscan tribes from the north, including a branch of the Samnites called the Lucanians and an offshoot of the Lucanians called the Bruttii. The Bruttii established the main cities of Calabria, including the modern capital, Cosenza (then called Consentia). After the fall of the Roman Empire the inhabitants were in large part driven inland by the spread of malaria and, from the early Middle Ages until the XVII century, by pirate raids. Calabria was devastated during the Gothic War before it came under the rule of a local dux for the Byzantine Empire. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Calabria, which had been the rich breadbasket of Rome before Egypt was conquered, was the borderland between Byzantine rule and the Arab emirs in Sicily, subject to raids and skirmishes, depopulated and demoralized, with vibrant Greek monasteries providing fortresses of culture. In the 1060s, Normans under the leadership of Robert Guiscard's brother Roger established a presence in this borderland, and organized a government along Byzantine lines that was run by the local Greek magnates of Calabria. In 1098, Pope Urban II named Roger the equivalence of an apostolic legate. The Hauteville clan later formed the precursors of the Kingdom of Naples which ruled Calabria until the unification of Italy. This kingdom itself came under many rulers: the Habsburg dynasties of both Spain and Austria; the Franco-Spanish Bourbon dynasty, Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte, and then French Marshal Joachim Murat, who was executed in the small town of Pizzo. Throughout all this Calabria remained a very rural and isolated region. It experienced a series of peasant revolts as part of the European Revolutions of 1848. This set the stage for the eventual unification with the rest of Italy in 1861, when the Kingdom of Naples was brought into the union by Giuseppe Garibaldi. The Aspromonte was the scene of a famous battle of the Risorgimento (unification of Italy), in which Garibaldi was wounded. The 'Ndrangheta organized crime families of Calabria began to appear in 1860; they now rival in power the better known Cosa Nostra of nearby Sicily, though they operate completely independently from the Sicilians and are especially active in the cocaine trade. Until recently, the Mezzogiorno (southern Italy) was among the poorest regions of Europe and impoverished Calabria was a main source for the Italian diaspora of the early 20th Century. Many Calabrians moved to the industrial centres of northern Italy, the rest of Europe, Australia and the Americas (especially Argentina, Brazil, Canada, and the United States). Today, there is increased affluence and a much improved economy based on modern agriculture, tourism, and a growing commercial base. Even though the per capita income is still well below that of northern Italy and central Italy, it has improved to the point where it is approaching the European Union median. The main tourist draws in Calabria are the coastline and the mountains. The coastline alternates between rugged cliffs and sandy beaches, and is sparsely interrupted by development when compared to other European seaside destinations. The sea around Calabria is clear, and there is a good level of tourist accommodation. The poet Gabriele D'Annunzio called the coast facing Sicily near Reggio Calabria "...the most beautiful kilometer in Italy" (il più bel chilometro d'Italia). The primary mountain tourist draws are Aspromonte and La Sila, with its national park and lakes. Some other prominent destinations include:
* Reggio Calabria, on the strait between the mainland and Sicily, the largest and oldest city in Calabria, renowned for its fabulous panoramic seaside with botanical gardens between the art nouveau buildings and the beautiful beaches, and its 3,000 years of history with the old Aragonian Castle and the great National Museum of Magna Grecia where the famous Riace Warriors (Bronzi di Riace) are located.
* Cosenza, seat of the Cosentian Academy, is renowned for its cultural institutions, the old quarter, a Romanesque Cathedral and a Swabian Castle.
* Sybaris, on the Ionian sea, is a village situated near the excavation of ancient Sybaris, a Greek colony of the VII century B.C.
* Scilla, on the Tyrrhenian Sea, "pearl" of the "Violet Coast", has delightful panorama, important religious traditions, and is the site of some of Homer's tales.
* Tropea, on the Tyrrhenian Sea coast, is a beautiful town, with a drammatic seaside beach, and the Santa Maria dell'Isola sanctuary. It is also renowned for its sweet red onions (mainly produced in Ricadi).
* Capo Vaticano on the Tyrrhenian Sea, is a very famous wide bathing place near Tropea.
* Siderno on the Ionian Sea coast.
* Gerace, near Locri, is a beautiful medieval city with a Norman castle and an ancient cathedral.
* Squillace, a seaside resort and important archeological site
* Stilo, the home of Tommaso Campanella, with its Norman castle and beautiful Byzantine church, the Cattolica.
* Pizzo, on the Tyrrhenian Sea coast, known for its ice cream called "Tartufo". Interesting places in Pizzo are Piazza Repubblica and the Aragonian castle where Murat was murdered.
* Soverato on the Ionian Sea, Also known as the "Pearl" of the Ionian Sea. Especially renown for its beaches, boardwalk and nightlife.
* Nicotera on the Tyrrhenian Sea, is a beautiful little medieval Town with an ancient Ruffo's castle.


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APULIA

In ancient times only the northern part of the region was called Apulia; the southern peninsula was known as Calabria, a name later used to designate the "toe" of the Italian "boot". One of the richest in Italy for archeological findings, the region was settled from the 1st millennium BC by several Illyric and Italic peoples. Later, the Greeks expanded until reaching the area of Taranto and the Salento. In the fifth and fourth centuries BC, the Greek settlement at Taras produced a distinctive style of pottery (Apulian vase painting). Apulia was an important area for the ancient Romans, who conquered it in the 4th century BC but also suffered a crushing defeat here in the battle of Cannae against Hannibal. However, after the Carthaginians left the region, the Romans captured the ports of Brindisi and Taranto, and established dominion over the region. During the Imperial age Apulia was a flourishing area for production of grain and oil, becoming the most important exporter to the Eastern provinces. After the fall of Rome, Apulia was held successively by the Goths, the Lombards and, from the 6th century onwards, the Byzantines. Bari became the capital of a province that extended to modern Basilicata, and was ruled by a catepano (governor), hence the name of Capitanata of the Barese neighbourhood. From 800 on Saracen domination in the area was intermittent, but Apulia was mostly under Byzantine authority until the 11th century, when the Normans conquered it with relative ease. Robert Guiscard set up the duchy of Apulia in 1059. After the Norman conquest of Sicily in the late 11th century, Palermo replaced Melfi (just west of present day Apulia) as the center of Norman power, and Apulia became a mere province, first of the Kingdom of Sicily, then of the Kingdom of Naples. From the late 12th to early 13th centuries, Apulia was a favorite residence of the Hohenstaufen emperors, notably Frederick II. After the fall of the latter's heir, Manfred, under the Angevine and Aragonese/Spanish dominations Apulia became largely dominated by a small number of powerful landowners (Baroni). The coast was occupied at times by the Turks and by the Venetians. The French also controlled the region in 1806-1815, resulting in the abolition of feudalism and the reformation of the justice system. Liberation movements began to spread in the 1820s. In 1861, with the fall of Two Sicilies, the region joined Italy. Social and agrarian reforms that had proceeded slowly from the 19th century accelerated in the mid-20th century. The characteristic Apulian architecture of the 11th–13th centuries reflects Greek, Arab, Norman, and Pisan influences. Universities are located in Bari, Lecce and Foggia.

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AOSTA VALLEY

The first inhabitants of the Aosta Valley were Celts and Ligurians, whose language lingers in some local placenames. Rome conquered the region from the local Salassi ca. 25 BC and founded Augusta Praetoria (Aosta) to secure the strategic mountain passes, which they improved with bridges and roads. After Rome the high valley preserved traditions of autonomy, reinforced by its seasonal isolation, though it was loosely held in turns by the Goths and the Lombards, then by the Burgundian kings in the 5th century, followed by the Franks, who overran the Burgundian kingdom in 534. At the division among the heirs of Charlemagne in 870, the Aosta Valley formed part of the Lotharingian Kingdom of Italy, in a second partition a decade later, it formed part of the Kingdom of Upper Burgundy, which was joined to the Kingdom of Arles — all doubtless without many significant corresponding changes in the personnel of the virtually independent fiefs in the Valle d'Aosta. In 1031-1032 Umberto Biancamano, the founder of the House of Savoy, received the title Count of Aosta from the Emperor Conrad II of the Franconian line and built himself a commanding fortification at Bard. Saint Anselm of Canterbury was born in Aosta in 1033 or 1034. The region was divided among strongly fortified castles, and in 1191 Thomas I of Savoy found it necessary to grant to the communes a Carta delle Franchigie ("Charter of Liberties") that preserved autonomy, rights that were fiercely defended until 1770, when they were revoked in order to tie Aosta more closely to the Piedmont, but which kept re-surfacing during post-Napoleonic times. In the mid-13th century Emperor Frederick II made the County of Aosta a duchy (see Duke of Aosta), and its arms charged with a lion rampant were carried in the Savoia arms until the reunification of Italy in 1870. During the Middle Ages the region remained strongly feudal, and castles, such as those of the Challant family in the Valley of Gressoney, still dot the landscape. In the 12th and 13th centuries, German-speaking Walser communities were established in the Gressoney, and some communes retain their separate Walser identity even today. The region remained part of Savoy lands, with the exception of a French occupation from 1539 to 1563. As part of the Kingdom of Sardinia it joined the new Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Under Mussolini, a forced programme of "Italianization", including population transfers of Valdostans into Piedmont and Italian-speaking workers into Aosta, fostered movements towards separatism; Aosta was regranted its autonomy in 1948.

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BASILICATA

In Roman times the district was called Lucania and was administered together with the district of Bruttium (inhabited by the Bruttii), to the south. The district of Lucania was so called from the people bearing the name Lucani (Lucanians), who invaded the country about the middle of the 5th century BC, driving the indigenous tribes, known to the Greeks as Oenotrians, Chones, and Leuterni (or Leutarni), into the mountainous interior. The coasts on both sides were occupied by powerful Greek colonies, part of Magna Graecia. The Lucanians were engaged in hostilities with the Greek colony of Taras/Tarentum, and with Alexander, king of Epirus, who was called in by the Tarentine people to their assistance, in 326 BC, thus providing a precedent for Epirote interference in the affairs of Magna Graecia. In 298, Livy records, they made alliance with Rome, and Roman influence was extended by the colonies of Venusia (291), Paestum (Greek Posidonia, refounded in 273), and above all Roman Tarentum (refounded in 272). Subsequently, however, the Lucanians suffered by choosing the losing side in the various wars on the peninsula in which Rome took part. They were sometimes in alliance with Rome, but more frequently engaged in hostilities, during the Samnite wars. When Pyrrhus of Epirus landed in Italy, 281 they were among the first to declare in his favor, and after his abrupt departure they were reduced to subjection, in a ten year campaign (272). Enmity continued to run deep; they espoused the cause of Hannibal during the Second Punic War (216), and Lucania was ravaged by both armies during several campaigns. The country never recovered from these disasters, and under the Roman government fell into decay, to which the Social War, in which the Lucanians took part with the Samnites against Rome (90 - 88 BC), gave the finishing stroke. In the time of Strabo the Greek cities on the coast had fallen into insignificance, and owing to the decrease of population and cultivation malaria began to obtain the upper hand. The few towns of the interior were of no importance. A large part of the province was given up to pasture, and the mountains were covered with forests, which abounded in wild boars, bears and wolves.

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ABRUZZO

Although rich in natural beauty and history, Abruzzo is only just starting to be discovered by mass tourism. Abruzzo's wealth of castles and medieval towns, especially near the town of L'Aquila has earned it in some quarters the nickname of "Abruzzoshire", by analogy with the "Chiantishire" nickname sometimes used to refer to the Chianti area of Tuscany.
Skiing. Abruzzo has 21 ski areas with 368 km. of runs, all within a few hours of Rome. The most developed resort being Roccaraso, followed by Campo Felice, and Campo Imperatore. Located in the highest region of the Apennines, these ski areas are at heights nearly comparable to many Alpine resorts. Because of their proximity to the Adriatic and winter precipitation patterns, they often have more snow than the Alps. Abruzzo also is popular for cross country skiing, especially on the high plain of Campo Imperatore in the Gran Sasso as well as the Piana Grande in the Majella.
Mountain Climbing: The Gran Sasso massif sports the Italian peninsula’s highest peak, Corno Grande, and Europe’s southernmost glacier, Il Calderone. The Corno Grande and its neighboring Corno Piccolo provide a range of climbing opportunities from mountain hikes suitable for novices to sheer rock wall ascents suitable only for expert alpinists. Abruzzo’s lesser known peaks, especially the gentler slopes of the Majella, offer climbers the opportunity to hike and climb in solitude.
Beach Resorts: Abruzzo’s 129 km. long sandy coastline is home to a many popular beach resorts, among them Vasto on Abruzzo’s southern coast; mid-coast are Silvi Marina, whose sands are considered among the best in Italy, Francavilla al Mare and Pineto, and on Abruzzo’s northern coast are Alba Adriatica and Martinsicuro.

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Best of Italy

A brief description of the Italian regions. At the end of every region's description you can find a link to the best farmhouse. Have a good trip!!